Early Child Adversity and Delinquent Behavior in Foster Care Youth: Do Future Expectations and Sexual Identity Moderate the Mediating Role of Posttraumatic Stress?

Purpose: Delinquency in youth is a significant public health concern for individuals who experienced adversity and complex trauma as children. The present study explored the longitudinal associations between adverse child experiences and future engagement in delinquent behavior. Methods: Using a sample of 1,245 foster youth who are aging out of the child welfare system, mediation, moderation, and moderated mediation analysis was used to test the mechanistic role of post-traumatic stress symptoms and the moderating role of sexual identity and positive future expectations on engagement in delinquent behavior. Results: Results showed a positive and significant association between adverse child experiences and engagement in delinquent behavior. Post-traumatic stress symptoms partially mediated the ACEs-delinquency relationship. In addition, sexual minority youth and youth who were less optimistic about the future, but who experienced more ACEs, were at risk for heightened levels of post-traumatic stress. Conclusions: Interventions that promote positive future outlooks may minimize the psychological sequelae of early child adversity and delinquent behavior particularly when tailored to the needs of sexual minority youth.

Measuring adverse childhood experiences with latent class trajectories.

BACKGROUND: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with several negative health and behavioral outcomes during adolescence, but most of the extant research has employed ACEs scores at one or two time points. Studies have not assessed whether latent class ACEs trajectories affect adolescent problem behaviors and conditions. OBJECTIVES: We used longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS, n = 3444) to assess ACEs at several time points and empirically developed latent class trajectories. We then examined the sociodemographic characteristics of youth who belonged to each trajectory group. We next evaluated whether the ACEs trajectories during childhood were associated with delinquent behavior, substance use, and symptoms of anxiety or depression. Finally, we explored whether closeness to mother buffered the impact of ACEs on these outcomes. METHODS: Eight types of ACEs were captured in the FFCWS data. ACE scores were assessed at year one, three, five, and nine, along with the outcomes during year 15. Trajectories were estimated with a semiparametric latent class models. RESULTS: The analysis revealed three latent trajectories during childhood: a low/none ACEs group, a medium exposure group, and a high exposure group. Adolescents in the high exposure group manifested a heightened risk of involvement in delinquent behaviors and substance use. They also reported more symptoms of anxiety and depression than their peers in the low/none and medium exposure groups. CONCLUSIONS: Repeated exposure to ACEs during childhood can have serious negative repercussions in the lives of adolescents, but maternal closeness may buffer their effects. Scholars should continue to examine the dynamics of ACEs exposure during childhood by using empirical approaches appropriate for identifying age-graded trajectories.

The Associations between Self-Silencing and Delinquency in Adolescent Who Experienced Child Sexual Abuse.

A large body of research reveals that child sexual abuse is an adverse experience associated with many negative socioemotional and behavioral consequences during adolescence. Notably, adolescent victims of child sexual abuse are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior, which has importance for their adaptation later in life. While research on the psychological antecedents of delinquent behavior has independently considered each core feature of silencing the self (i.e., low assertiveness and self-expression, conflict avoidance, presenting a non-authentic self, anger, and hostility), it has failed to jointly consider these as potential predictors of delinquent behaviors in adolescent victims of child sexual abuse. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between the two dimensions of self-silencing (i.e., divided self and silencing the self) and delinquency in adolescent victims of child sexual abuse. A sample of 110 adolescents seeking services following child sexual abuse completed self-reported questionnaires, and case files were analyzed to gather information regarding child sexual abuse severity. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that, after controlling for the effect of age, gender, parental monitoring, and child sexual abuse severity, self-silencing was positively associated with delinquent behaviors, affiliation with delinquent peers, as well as alcohol and drug use. Divided self contributed to the prediction of aggressive behaviors. Implementing interventions aimed at increasing adolescents' assertiveness, conflict management skills, and emotion regulation and promoting congruence between their behaviors and authentic selves may lower their involvement in delinquency.

Educational Prevention of Antisocial and Delinquent Behavior inBrazilian Adolescents / Prevención Educativa de los Comportamientos Antisociales y Delictivos en Adolescentes Brasileños

Background: Antisocial and criminal behaviors are frequently associated with illegal behaviors committed by adolescents between 12 and 19. This study aims to examine antisocial and criminal behavior in adolescence and establish guidelines that contribute to educational prevention. Specifically, we sought to evaluate self-reports of antisocial and criminal behaviors in adolescents, verifying differences in the variables sex and age. Method: A total of 396 adolescents participated in the study. They were aged 12 to 19 years old (M = 15.8, SD = 1.6), were of both sexes (63.9% girls or women and 36.1% boys or men) and were attending primary and secondary schools in Brazil. The Antisocial-Criminal Behaviors Questionnaire (A-D) was administered online. Descriptive and comparative analyses by sex and age were performed. Results: Boys presented more transgressive behaviors than girls, not overall, but in specific behaviors included in the two scales of the questionnaire used. In terms of age, self-reported antisocial and criminal behaviors increased with student age. Conclusions: From a systemic perspective, educational proposals are made to identify and neutralize risk factors and improve protective factors for adolescents.(AU)

Antecedentes: Las conductas antisociales y delictivas se asocian frecuentemente a conductas ilegales y son cometidas por adolescentes de 12 a19 años. Este trabajo tiene como objetivos profundizar en este tipo de conductas en la adolescencia y establecer pautas que contribuyan a su prevención educativa. Concretamente, se evalúan los autoinformes de conductas antisociales y delictivas en adolescentes, y se verifican diferencias respecto al sexo y la edad. Método: La muestra estuvo conformada por 396 adolescentes, de 12 a 19 años (M = 15.8, DT = 1.6), de ambos sexos (63.9%% mujeres y 36.1% varones), estudiantes de primaria y secundaria de escuelas brasileñas. El Cuestionario de Conductas Antisociales-Delictivas (A-D) fue administrado en línea. Se realizaron análisis descriptivos y comparativos por sexo y edad. Resultados: En cuanto al sexo, los chicos presentaron comportamientos más transgresores que las chicas, pero no de modo global, sino en conductas específicas incluidas en las dos escalas del cuestionario utilizado. Respecto a la edad, se incrementan las conductas antisociales y delictivas autoinformadas a medida que aumenta la edad de los estudiantes. Conclusiones: Estos hallazgos permiten organizar propuestas educativas consistentes para identificar y neutralizar los factores de riesgo y mejorar los factores protectores para los adolescentes.(AU)

The Impact of Life Domains on Delinquent Behaviors in Five Caribbean Countries: A Partial Test of Agnew's General Theory of Crime and Delinquency.

The current study tests the applicability of Agnew's (2005) general theory of crime and delinquency to a sample of Caribbean Community (CARICOM) youths and explains the hypothesized direct and indirect/mediated effects of family attachment and peer delinquency on delinquent behaviors. Data for this study were obtained from a 2014 cross-sectional survey of 512 adolescents from the five members of the CARICOM. This study utilizes mediation analysis. Results reveal that adolescents with abuse experience from family members and unsafe school environments are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. Furthermore, peer delinquency is significantly related to delinquent behavior and mediates the link between child abuse, family history of violence, unsafe school environment, and subsequent delinquent behavior. Finally, child abuse generated a lower level of family attachment, and then a higher level of family attachment led to a lower likelihood of subsequent delinquent behavior.

The Explanation of Adolescent Delinquent Behaviors Based on Jessor's Problem Behavior Theory (PBT) in Iran: The Role of Individual Vulnerability, Opportunity Risk Availability, and Perceived Support.

This study tested the generality of Problem Behavior Theory (PBT) in explaining adolescents' problem behavior in Iran. Data were collected from 392 adolescents (Mage = 15.97, SD = 1.12, 55.4% girls) who completed the Adolescent Health and Development Questionnaire (AHDQ) to assess the individual vulnerability, opportunity risk availability, perceived support, and delinquent behaviors. Results indicated that individual vulnerability and opportunity risk availability had a significant relationship with delinquent behaviors and a significant interaction with perceived support in their influence on delinquent behaviors. Further, perceived support was negatively associated with delinquent behaviors. Our results were consistent with PBT's explanatory model for adolescents' problem behavior in Western countries and are informative about problem behavior involvement among Iranian adolescents and the design of interventions.

Association of atopic dermatitis with delinquent behaviors in US children and adolescents.

Childhood atopic dermatitis (AD) is associated with chronic itch, pain and sleep disturbance, which may predispose children to high-risk behaviors in their school and home environments. We examined the association between AD and delinquent/high-risk behaviors in children and adolescents. Data were analyzed from The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal birth cohort study consisting of 4898 children born in urban cities between 1998 and 2000. A 1-year history of AD was associated with ≥ 75th percentile of mean delinquent behavior scores at age 9 (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) [95% confidence interval] 1.39 [1.14-1.68]), but not age 15 (1.05 [0.86-1.29]). At age 9, a 1-year history of AD was associated with a higher number of delinquent behaviors (adjusted risk ratio [95% CI] 1.12 [1.03-1.23]). AD at ages 5 (aOR [95%CI] 1.31 [1.04-1.64]) and 9 (1.38 [1.14-1.67]) was associated with the highest quartile of mean delinquent behavior scores at ages 9 or 15. Children with AD persisting at multiple age groups had significantly increased odds of ≥ 75th percentile of mean delinquent behavior scores at age 15 (aOR [95%CI] 1.41 [1.09-1.81]). AD was found to be associated with the following delinquent problems: damaging property (aOR [95%CI] 1.38 [1.08-1.77]), cheating on a test (1.62 [1.17-2.26]), fist fight involvement (1.47 [1.21-1.79]) and school suspension (1.36 [1.08-1.71]). This study suggests that childhood AD may precede the onset of delinquent and high-risk behaviors later in childhood and adolescence.

Juvenile's Delinquent Behavior, Risk Factors, and Quantitative Assessment Approach: A Systematic Review.

Background: Not only in India but also worldwide, criminal activity has dramatically increasing day by day among youth, and it must be addressed properly to maintain a healthy society. This review is focused on risk factors and quantitative approach to determine delinquent behaviors of juveniles. Materials and Methods: A total of 15 research articles were identified through Google search as per inclusion and exclusion criteria, which were based on machine learning (ML) and statistical models to assess the delinquent behavior and risk factors of juveniles. Results: The result found ML is a new route for detecting delinquent behavioral patterns. However, statistical methods have used commonly as the quantitative approach for assessing delinquent behaviors and risk factors among juveniles. Conclusions: In the current scenario, ML is a new approach of computer-assisted techniques have potentiality to predict values of behavioral, psychological/mental, and associated risk factors for early diagnosis in teenagers in short of times, to prevent unwanted, maladaptive behaviors, and to provide appropriate intervention and build a safe peaceful society.

Predicting delinquent behavior in young adults with a childhood diagnosis of ADHD: results from the Cologne Adaptive Multimodal Treatment (CAMT) Study.

The aim of this study was to investigate which factors predict lifetime reports of delinquent behavior in young adults who had received adaptive multimodal treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) starting at ages 6-10 years. Participants were reassessed 13-24 years (M = 17.6, SD = 1.8) after they had received individualized ADHD treatment in the Cologne Adaptive Multimodal Treatment Study (CAMT). Their behavior was classified as non-delinquent (n = 34) or delinquent (n = 25) based on self-reports regarding the number of police contacts, offenses, and convictions at follow-up. Childhood variables assessed at post-intervention (e.g., externalizing child behavior problems, intelligence, and parenting behavior) that were significantly associated with group membership were entered as possible predictors of delinquency in a Chi-squared automatic interaction detector (CHAID) analysis. Delinquent behavior during adolescence and adulthood was best predicted by (a) meeting the symptom count diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder (CD) according to parent ratings, in combination with a nonverbal intelligence of IQ ≤ 106 at post-intervention, and (b) delinquent behavior problems (teacher rating) at post-intervention. The predictor variables specified in the CHAID analysis classified 81% of the participants correctly. The results support the hypothesis that a childhood diagnosis of ADHD is only predictive of delinquent behavior if it is accompanied by early conduct behavior problems. Low nonverbal intelligence was found to be an additional risk factor. These findings underline the importance of providing behavioral interventions that focus on externalizing behavior problems to children with ADHD and comorbid conduct problems.

Motivation to Move Out of the Community as a Moderator of Bullying Victimization and Delinquent Behavior: Comparing Non-Heterosexual/Cisgender and Heterosexual African American Adolescents in Chicago's Southside.

A growing body of research documents that bullying victimization is associated with delinquent behavior. There is an increasing need to better illuminate the factors that might moderate this relationship. This study examined whether the motivation to move out of low-resourced neighborhoods and sexual orientation/gender identity moderated the relationship between bullying victimization and delinquent behavior among a sample of 450 heterosexual and 91 non-heterosexual/cisgender African American youths. Measures considered were bullying victimization, delinquent behavior, sexual orientation/gender identity, motivation to move out, and family demographics. Sexual orientation/gender identity was not associated with youth delinquent behavior after controlling for covariates. Being motivated to move out moderated the association between bullying victimization and delinquent behavior. Sexual orientation/gender identity and being motivated to move out of low-resourced communities jointly contributed to the moderating effect between bullying victimization and delinquent behavior. For non-heterosexual/cisgender youth, bullying victimization is correlated with increased delinquent behavior for those with low motivation to move out of their communities compared with those with an average or higher level of motivation to stay. However, such a moderating effect was not shown for heterosexual youth.

What Types of Delinquent Activities are Bullies, Victims, and Bully/Victims in Urban Neighborhoods Most Likely Involved in?

PURPOSE: The current study explores which types of delinquent activities bullies, victims, and bully/victims are most at risk of from a sample of urban African American adolescents. DESIGN AND METHODS: The research design was cross-sectional, which includes a sample of low-income African American adolescents in Chicago's Southside. The study participants included 523 adolescents. Descriptive statistics, latent class analysis, and logistic regression analysis were conducted. RESULTS: Bullies, victims, and bully/victims are all at a heightened risk of theft, threatening behavior, and assaultive behavior. Irrespective of bullying status, delinquency is a serious problem for urban adolescents who are bullies, victims, or bully/victims. CONCLUSIONS: Investigating the types of delinquent activities bullies, victims, and bully/victims are most likely to be involved in is important. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Evidence-based treatment plans require assessment tools that are tailored for urban African American adolescents. Nurses are advised to consider interventions that promote resilience.

Violent Offending, Nonviolent Offending, and General Delinquency: Exploring the Criminogenic Risk Factors of Hong Kong Male and Female Adolescents.

Limited information is known about the offending phenomenon of Hong Kong adolescents, specifically from a theoretical standpoint. Using a sample of 892 secondary school students, this study aims to explore the criminogenic risk factors of juvenile delinquency in Hong Kong adolescents. Grounded in the theoretical propositions of mainstream criminological theories (i.e., self-control, social control, social learning, general strain, and routine activity), the adolescents' types of delinquent behavior (i.e., violent, nonviolent, and general delinquency) are examined. Findings indicate that male adolescents reported significantly higher levels of violent, nonviolent, and general delinquency than female adolescents. Relative to females, males are also reported significantly higher levels of pro-violence attitudes, deviant peer influence, alcohol and drug use, and perceived neighborhood disorganization. However, female adolescents are found to have higher levels of self-control, social bonding, and negative temperament than their male counterparts. Multivariate analyses demonstrate that deviant peer influence in addition to alcohol and drug use is found to be general risk factors for engaging in all sorts of delinquent activity. A high level of pro-violence attitudes is significantly associated with violent offending, while low self-control is a significant predictor of nonviolent offending and general delinquency. Social bonding, negative temperament, and perceived neighborhood disorganization are found to be important factors associated with general delinquency. Implications of the findings are offered to address the adolescents' criminogenic risk factors and prevent their propensity to engage in violent, nonviolent, and general delinquency.

Detention in Juvenile Correctional Facilities Is Associated with Higher Platelet Monoamine Oxidase B Activity in Males.

Juvenile delinquency is related to several biological factors, yet very few vulnerability biomarkers have been identified. Previous data suggest that the enzyme monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) influences several personality traits linked to the propensity to engage in delinquent behavior. Building on this evidence, we assessed whether conduct disorder (CD), juvenile delinquency adjudications, or detention in a correctional facility were associated with either platelet MAO-B activity or the MAOB rs1799836 polymorphism. The study enrolled 289 medication-free male youths, including 182 individuals detained in a correctional facility (with or without a diagnosis of CD). Of the remaining 107 participants, 26 subjects had a diagnosis of CD, and 81 were mentally healthy controls. Platelet MAO-B activity was determined by spectrophotofluorometry, while MAOB rs1799836 was genotyped using qPCR. Platelet MAO-B activity, corrected for age and smoking, was significantly higher in juvenile detainees (p < 0.001), irrespective of CD diagnosis. MAOB rs1799836 was not associated with platelet MAO-B activity or with detention in a correctional facility, CD diagnosis, or delinquent behavior. These data suggest that detention in a juvenile correctional facility increases platelet MAO-B activity in male adolescents. Future studies are needed to determine the mechanisms and functional significance of MAO-B peripheral elevation in juvenile male detainees.

Parental perceptions linked to opioid misuse among justice-involved children.

Justice-involved children (JIC) are a subset of at-risk youth highly susceptible to the ill-consequences of opioid misuse (OM), especially for younger JIC. Parental practices and attitudes towards delinquency are known to influence a child's behavior, however the relationship between parental attitudes towards youth delinquent behavior and odds of OM has yet to be investigated. The current study used a sample from the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice (age 10-18; M=14; n=79,960) to investigate how parental attitudes towards youth delinquent behavior influence the likelihood JIC meet criteria for past-30 day (P30D) OM. P30D OM was verified utilizing urinalysis. Youth with parents expressing proud or accepting attitudes towards youth delinquent behavior were roughly twice as likely to meet criteria for P30D OM as those with parents expressing disapproving attitudes. This relationship varied by age, with younger ages experiencing the greatest risk. These findings support early intervention efforts to develop prosocial attitudes in youth and their parents.

Disentangling the Effects of Boys' Pubertal Timing: The Importance of Social Context.

Some prior studies have found that, for boys, earlier puberty is linked to higher crime and delinquency, while other studies have found that earlier puberty is associated with greater social competence and beneficial psychosocial development. The current study suggests that these seemingly contradictory results actually represent two divergent pathways by which earlier pubertal timing can affect adjustment. Which pathway boys take is highly dependent on psychosocial context. Using a sample of 310 African American boys and their primary caregivers tracked across three waves of data collection from ages 10.55-18.84 from the Family and Community Health Study (FACHS), the current study utilizes Latent Moderated Structural Equation Modeling (LMS) to analyze effects of interactions between pubertal timing and social contextual factors on criminal behavior and social competence. Results suggest that criminogenic effects of early puberty are contingent on deviant peer group, poor school experience, harsh parenting, and neighborhood disorganization, whereas the association between earlier puberty and social competence is attenuated by harsh parenting. Results suggest that modeling both positive and negative development outcomes together may give a clearer picture of the developmental consequences of pubertal timing for boys. In addition, this study shows the importance of social context in shaping the meaning and consequences of biological variables like pubertal timing.

Does a Close Relationship With an Adult Reduce the Risk of Juvenile Offending for Youth With a History of Maltreatment?

Social support is frequently cited as a protective factor against juvenile offending. The current study examined whether a close relationship with an adult in childhood decreases the risk for offending among individuals with a history of child maltreatment. This research utilized data from a prospective cohort design study in which children with court-substantiated cases of abuse and neglect and nonmaltreated children matched on age, sex, race, and approximate family social class were followed into adulthood (N = 1,196). Having a close relationship with an adult did not decrease risk for delinquent behavior or arrest, but a close relationship with a parent was associated with lower risk for delinquent behavior. Surprisingly, adults with no history of maltreatment who reported having a close relationship with a peer or sibling were more likely to report engaging in violent behavior in adolescence. In total, these findings point to the complexity of development and suggest that although a close relationship with an adult can be protective, the mere presence of such a relationship, without inquiry into the type of relationship, is not sufficient.

Pathways to delinquent and sex offending behavior: The role of childhood adversity and environmental context in a treatment sample of male adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to greater Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) has been associated with increased likelihood of general and sex offending behaviors. However, few studies consider both the impact of varied ACE exposures and other early experiences on pathways to offending behaviors in adolescents who have engaged in sexually abusive behaviors. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of ACEs and sexual boundary problems within the home on the development of delinquent and sexually abusive behavior. PARTICIPANTS & SETTING: Data were collected from archival records of male adolescents (N = 285) who had received treatment for sexually abusive behavior at a youth facility. METHODS: This study investigated the effects of individual adverse experiences on delinquent nonsexual and sexually abusive behaviors through structural equation modeling. RESULTS: Structural equation modeling revealed a three-factor model for ACEs. Direction and significance of paths between ACEs and the onset, persistence, and nature of maladaptive behaviors differed. Household dysfunction was related to an earlier onset (ß = 1.19, p = 0.013) and more persistent nonsexual delinquent offending (ß = 1.05, p = 0.048) and contact sexual offending (ß = 1.19, p = 0.010). Conversely, sexual abuse and exposure to sexual boundary problems were associated with an earlier onset of sexually abusive behavior (ß = -1.08, p = 0.038) as well as indicators of adolescent-onset (ß = -1.30, p = 0.002), less persistent (ß = -1.53, p = 0.001), and nonviolent (ß = -1.89, p = 0.001) delinquency. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest variations in ACE exposures differentially influence the onset, severity, and persistence of delinquent and sexually abusive behaviors among these youths.

Delinquent Behavior: Systematic Review of Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors.

Delinquency refers to a juveniles' behavior pattern characterized by repeated offending, and is regarded mainly in its social, but also criminal aspects. Delinquent and non-delinquent individuals may be a product of the same society or even the same family. Young individuals who are unable to find affection and protection within the family may become more susceptible to delinquency as a form of empowerment. More than socioeconomic conditions, the lack of interaction between parents and children, the existence of psychopathological problems in either parent, and academic problems, together with a biological vulnerability, may be deciding factors for the involvement of young individuals in delinquent behavior. This review aims to analyze the influence of environmental and genetic factors in the development of delinquent behavior. Studies related to the influence of the environment and genes on the development of delinquent behavior were obtained from multiple databases, through rigorous exclusion and inclusion criteria. Of the 152 documents retrieved, 87 were retained for further analysis, and 36 final studies were considered eligible for inclusion. In addition to these, ten studies were added trough manual search, with the final sample thus comprising 46 articles, published between 1983 and 2016. Objectives, methodological aspects (samples and instruments), and main conclusions were extracted from each study. Overall, the interaction between genetic and environmental factors appears to best explain the variation of delinquent behavior. Environmental risk factors may have differential effects on the behavior of individuals, particularly according to their genetic propensity for delinquency.

Experiential peer support and its effects on desistance from delinquent behavior: protocol paper for a systematic realist literature review.

BACKGROUND: Experiential peers are increasingly involved in the development and delivery of interventions for individuals who are engaged in delinquent behavior. Experiential peer support, which is the provision of support to an individual engaged in delinquent behavior by someone who has previously also practiced such behavior, is one such application. Little is known, however, about its effects on desistance, or the mechanisms that explain these effects. On the basis of theoretical papers, program descriptions, and interviews with experts, we developed an initial program theory. We propose seven mechanisms that might play a role in the (potential) effects of support by experiential peers: (1) empathy and acceptance, (2) social learning, (3) social bonding, (4) social control, (5) narrative and identity formation, (6) hope and perspective, and (7) translation and connection. In addition, in this protocol paper, we describe the methods of a systematic realist literature review that will be conducted in order to investigate the evidence base for this program theory. METHODS: The study described in this protocol paper is a realist review, which is a suitable approach to study complex interventions and fits the explanatory purpose of the study. We outline the steps to be taken for the systematic realist review, including the selection and assessment of studies and the methods for synthesizing the findings. DISCUSSION: Investigating the effects and the underlying mechanisms of support by experiential peers for individuals with delinquent behavior is relevant because the forensic setting has some unique features, and the involvement of service users might create even more tension than in other settings due to stigma and perceived risks. The findings that will be reported in the realist review will contribute to the knowledge of the effects of support by experiential peers and will provide insight into which aspects remain to be studied. It might also provide formal care institutions with guidance on whether to involve experiential peers in the delivery of their services and the conditions under which these interventions are likely to lead to positive results.

The Effect of Employment on Delinquent Behavior Among Youth in Hidden Situation.

This study examines the effect of employment on delinquent behavior among young people in "hidden situations". Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used, and 588 young people in these hidden situations were investigated. Results showed that some of them had employment; their employment status constituted a mediating effect on preventing them from being involved in delinquent behavior. Also, participants who had work explained the reasons for not being involved in delinquent behavior. These results reflect that whether young people in hidden situation involve in delinquent behavior depends on their employment rather than their hidden behavior itself. The implication is that practitioners should respect the youths' self-preferred choice of employment and even advocate a revision of the definition of employment in Hong Kong.